Journal of Science Policy & Governance
​Volume 22, Issue 01 | March 6, 2023

Policy Memo: Protection of Dark-Sky Areas in the United States Through Development and Implementation of Warm-Light LED Fixtures

Jacob P. Willis
  1. United States Military Academy, Department of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, West Point, New York
​
Corresponding author: [email protected] ​
Keywords: light pollution; LED; dark-sky preservation ​
https://doi.org/10.38126/JSPG220111 ​

Executive Summary

The light-emitting-diode (LED) revolution has drastically decreased the quality of the United States’ night sky. LEDs are brighter than the sodium doublet lighting fixtures they are replacing, causing an increase in light pollution. Emerging technology promises to replace high-color-temperature LED lighting with lower-color-temperature lighting that reduces light pollution. High-color-temperature, or “cool-lighting” causes unnecessary amounts of light pollution that decreases humanity's connection with the cosmos through stargazing. Policy implementations can increase public awareness of how LEDs affect light pollution through research grants and tax incentive structures. The federal government can directly decrease the United States’ luminous footprint by funding research on warm-light LED development , regulating LED lighting on federal projects to only use low-color-temperature LED fixtures and offering incentives to communities to reduce their light pollution through the tax code.

-Read the full article through download.-

Background header image courtesy of Brilliant Maps
Jacob Willis is a cadet at the United States Military Academy in the Physics and Nuclear Engineering Department. Cadet Willis researches in the West Point observatory, characterizing the rotational period of asteroids, and developing statistical methods to determine auroral structure movements in the ionosphere. Outside of lab, Cadet Willis enjoys backpacking at national parks. He plans to pursue research in high-latitude ionospheric disturbances after completing his service as an army officer. Cadet Willis will commission as a Signal Officer in May of 2023.

References

  1. Belany, P., Hrabovsky, P., & Kolkova, Z. (2021). Combination of lighting retrofit and life cycle cost analysis for energy efficiency improvement in buildings. Energy Reports, 7, 2470-2483. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484721002602 
  2. Cinzano, P., & Falchi, F. (2014). Quantifying light pollution. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2013.11.020.
  3. Eaves, M. (2021). Playing the Long Game. Nightscape, 105 (1) 4-5. https://www.darksky.org/wp-content/uploads/2 021/09/Nightscape-105-Summer-2021.pdf. Hartley, R. (2020, December 18). International Dark-Sky Association Biden Transition Letter. https://www.darksky.org/our-work/lighting/pu blic-policy/. 
  4. Holker, F., Moss, T., Griefahn, B., & Kloas Wener. (2010). The Dark Side of Light: A Transdisciplinary Research Agenda for Light Pollution Policy. Ecology and Society, 15(4). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2326 88395_The_Dark_Side_of_Light_A_Transdisciplina ry_Research_Agenda_for_Light_Pollution_Policy.
  5. International Dark-Sky Association. (2022). https://www.darksky.org. 
  6. International Dark-Sky Place Standards. (2022). International Dark-Sky Association. https://www.darksky.org/our-work/conservatio n/idsp/become-a-dark-sky-place/. 
  7. Lamphar, H., Wallner, S., & Kocifaj, M. (2022). Modelled impacts of a potential light emitting diode lighting system conversion and the influence of an extremely polluted atmosphere in Mexico City. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 49(2), 501–518. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epub/10.117 7/23998083211012702. 
  8. New Mexico Statutes - Night Sky Protection, Pub. L. No. 74–12, Justia US Law (2006). 
  9. New York - Lighting Restrictions, Pub. L. No. 143, Public Buildings (PBB) (2015). https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/laws/PBB /143. 
  10. Pattison, P., Hansen, M., & Tsao, J. (2018). LED lighting efficacy: Status and Directions. Comptes Rendus Physique, 19(3), 134–145. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S1631070517300932. 
  11. Pena-Garcia, A., & Sedziwy, A. (2020). Optimizing Lighting of Rural Roads and Protected Areas with White Light: A Compromise among Light Pollution, Energy Savings, and Visibility. The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 16(2), 147–156. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/ 15502724.2019.1574138. 
  12. Rajkhowa, Rasna. (2014). Light Pollution and Impact of Light Pollution. International Journal of Science and Research, 3(10), 861-867. https://www.ijsr.net/get_abstract.php?paper_id= OCT14210. 
  13. Rehabilitation Credit, Pub. L. No. 26 U.S. Code 47 (2017). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/47 . 
  14. Schulte-Romer, N., Meier, J., Soding, M., & Dannemann, E. (2019). The LED Paradox: How Light Pollution Challenges Experts to Reconsider Sustainable Lighting. Sustainability, 11(21). https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/21/616 0. 
  15. Zissis, G., Bertoldi, P., & Serrenho, T. (2021). Update on the Status of LED-Lighting world market since 2018. JRC Technical Report. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/ handle/JRC122760.
  16. The Associated Press. (2020, November 28). Georgia Power: Closing plant’s ash ponds to take 15 years. https://apnews.com/article/atlanta-georgia-b85b4631962c2d4b317bb1bf26d424da#:~:text=COOSA%2C%20Ga.,take%2015%20years%20to%20complete.&text=The%20removal%20of%20water%20from,a%20contractor%2C%20Evoqua%20Water%20Technologies.
  17. City of Atlanta, Georgia. (2017). Brownfield Program. https://www.atlantaga.gov/government/departments/city-planning/office-of-zoning-development/brownfield-program
  18. Earth Justice. (2018). Georgia at a Crossroads. https://earthjustice.org/features/coal-ash-contamination-georgia-groundwater
  19. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Brownfields. https://www.epa.gov/brownfields
  20. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). WIIN Grant: Assistance for Small and Disadvantaged Communities Drinking Water Grant. Building the Capacity of Drinking Water Systems. https://www.epa.gov/dwcapacity/wiin-grant-assistance-small-and-disadvantaged-communities-drinking-water-grant
  21. Environmental Protection Agency. (2015, April 17). Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2015/04/17/2015-00257/hazardous-and-solid-waste-management-system-disposal-of-coal-combustion-residuals-from-electric
  22. Environmental Protection Agency. (2020, January 10). Georgia: Approval of State Coal Combustion Residuals Permit Program [85 FR 1269]. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/01/10/2019-27665/georgia-approval-of-state-coal-combustion-residuals-permit-program
  23. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2013, April 01). Benefit and Cost Analysis for the Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category. National Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP). https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/P100MZC1.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=2011+Thru+2015&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&
  24. Environment America. (n.d.). Coal Ash Pits. https://environmentamerica.org/sites/environment/files/AccidentsFactsheet-CoalAsh.pdf
  25. EPA. (2021, March 9). Coal Ash (Coal Combustion Residuals, or CCR). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/coalash
  26. Gang, D. W. (2013, December 21). Kingston coal ash spill: 5 years, $1 billion in cleanup and no regulations later. Tennessean. https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2013/12/20/kingston-coal-ash-spill-5-years-1-billion-in-cleanup-and-no-regulations-later/4153801/
  27. Gang, D. W. (2013, December 21). Kingston coal ash spill: 5 years, $1 billion in cleanup and no regulations later. Tennessean. https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2013/12/20/kingston-coal-ash-spill-5-years-1-billion-in-cleanup-and-no-regulations-later/4153801/
  28. Georgia General Assembly. (2021). House Bill 176: Solid Waste Management. Georgia General Assembly. https://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/59099
  29. Georgia General Assembly. (2021). Senate Bill 230: Solid Waste Management. Georgia General Assembly. https://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/59960
  30. Georgia House of Representatives. (2021). House Bill 176. https://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/59099.
  31. Georgia House of Representatives. (2021). House Bill 431. https://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/59612.
  32. Georgia Power. (n.d.). Ground Water Monitoring and Information: Ash Pond Closures. https://www.georgiapower.com/company/environmental-compliance/ground-monitoring-dewatering.html
  33. Georgia Power. (2018, December). Ash Pond Closures Update. https://www.georgiapower.com/content/dam/georgia-power/pdfs/company-pdfs/ASH%20POND%20CLOSURES%20DEC2018_0214rev.pdf
  34. Georgia Power. (2021, January 31). Groundwater Monitoring, Dewatering and Ash Pond Closure Plant Specific Data. Georgia Power. https://www.georgiapower.com/company/environmental-compliance/ground-monitoring-dewatering/groundwater-monitoring-dewatering-plant-list.html
  35. Georgia Senate. (2021). Senate Bill 230. https://www.legis.ga.gov/legislation/59960
  36. Merem, E. C. (2016). The Growing Issue of Mercury Exposure and the Threats in the African American Community. Scientific & Academic Publishing, 6(1), 1-16. http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.fs.20160601.01.html
  37. Morehouse, C. (2019, December 18). Georgia approves almost $1.8B in rate hikes to cover coal ash clean up. Utility Dive. https://www.utilitydive.com/news/georgia-approves-almost-18b-in-rate-hikes-to-cover-coal-ash-clean-up/569276/
  38. NAACP. (2016). Coal Blooded Action Toolkit. https://www.naacp.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Coal_Blooded_Action_Toolkit_FINAL_FINAL.pdf
  39. Nuclear Energy Institute. (2020). State Electricity Generation Fuel Shares. https://www.nei.org/resources/statistics/state-electricity-generation-fuel-shares
  40. Perkin Elmer. (2009). The Determination of Total Mercury in Coal and Coal Fly Ash Using Thermal Combustion and Amalgamation Coupled with Atomic Absorption.
  41. Rice, K., Walker, E. J., Wu, M., Gillette, C., & Blough, E. (2014). Environmental Mercury and Its Toxic Effects. J Prev Med Public Health, 47(2), 74-82. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3988285/
  42. Rules and Regulations of Georgia. (2019). Subject 391-3-4 for Solid Waste Management. http://rules.sos.ga.gov/gac/391-3-4
  43. Satterfield, J. (2018, December 22). Kingston coal ash case: From spill to sicknesses to lawsuits. Knox News. https://www.knoxnews.com/story/news/crime/2018/12/22/kingston-coal-ash-spill-workers-10th-anniversary/2333826002
  44. Satterfield, J. (2019, February 5). Kingston coal ash case: From spill to sicknesses to lawsuits. Knoxville News Sentinel. https://www.knoxnews.com/story/news/2019/02/05/kingston-coal-ash-spill-timeline-lawsuit/2767409002/
  45. Schwartz, G. E. (2016, April). Leaching potential and redox transformations of arsenic and selenium in sediment microcosms with fly ash. Applied Geochemistry, 67, 177-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.02.013
  46. Southern Environmental Law Center. (2019, August 5). Letter to Georgia EPD. https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/6244284/5-August-2019-SELC-Letter-to-Georgia-EPD-Re.pdf
  47. Statistical Atlas. (2018). Race and Ethnicity in Georgian. Statistical Atlas. https://statisticalatlas.com/state/Georgia/Race-and-Ethnicity
  48. Tigue, K. (2021, January 15). Will 2021 Be the Year for Environmental Justice Legislation? States Are Already Leading the Way. Inside Climate News. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/15012021/environmental-justice-in-2021-legislation/
  49. United States Census Bureau. (2019). Quick Facts. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045219
  50. WaterShed Geo Unearthing Solutions. (2018). Technical and Cost Comparisons of Candidate Final Cover Systems for CCR Unit Closures. https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/environment/solid-waste/documents/esos/sw_esos-16_2018-05-17-1515-zhu.pdf
  51. Zhu, M. (2018, May). Technical and Cost Comparisons of Candidate Final Cover Systems for Coal Combustion Residual (CCR) Unit Closures. Watershed Geosynthetics. https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/environment/solid-waste/documents/esos/sw_esos-16_2018-05-17-1515-zhu.pdf
DISCLAIMER: The findings and conclusions published herein are solely attributed to the author and not necessarily endorsed or adopted by the Journal of Science Policy and Governance. Articles are distributed in compliance with copyright and trademark agreements.

ISSN 2372-2193
© 2022 Journal of Science Policy & Governance, Inc. All rights reserved. The opinions, findings and conclusions from JSPG publications, additional article commentaries and related events do not necessarily reflect the views of the journal.