Journal of Science Policy & Governance
​Volume 20, Issue 01 | March 28, 2022

Technology Assessment: Recycling Past and Present and the New Innovation Challenge for Materials at End-of-Life

Emily M. Yedinak
U.S. Department of Energy, Fellow, Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), Washington, DC

Corresponding author: Emily.Yedinak@hq.doe.gov
Keywords: recycling, end-of-life management, circular economy​
https://doi.org/10.38126/JSPG200109

Executive Summary

Recycling is critical for the drive towards a circular economy and sustainable materials. More than ever, consumers, industries, governments, and academics are looking at end-of-life materials processing with the simultaneous goals of reducing emissions and energy consumption from primary materials production, encouraging sustainable practices, and securing the supply chains of key materials. However, attention on recycling practices and markets has been inconsistent over the years and critical market trends were largely unnoticed up until three years ago. Consequently, when China instituted its import ban on over 20 classes of recycled materials that failed to meet its strict low contamination limit in 2018, widespread and immediate global repercussions were felt throughout the recycling industry, particularly in the United States (U.S.). To understand the magnitude of this most recent market disruption to the U.S. recycling industry, it is instructive to trace recycling’s origins and evolution to identify where the recycling model has succeeded and where there exist opportunities for improvement. In this vein, this assessment gives a brief overview of the historical development of recycling in the U.S., the state of the industry today, and a discussion of specific materials classes where recycling has achieved varying degrees of success. By providing this context, this assessment aims to generate a discussion based on a systems-wide approach and provide examples of intervention strategies that help move communities toward more sustainable materials management.

-Read the full article through download.-

Background header image courtesy of US Department of Energy from Flickr
Emily Yedinak, PhD currently serves as an ARPA-E Fellow. Her interests include employing life cycle analyses to better capture the environmental impact of clean energy innovations, supply chain management as it relates to materials required in green energy technology, and hydrogen production and storage. Dr. Yedinak graduated in 2013 from Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology with a B.S. in Chemical Engineering and a B.S. in Chemistry. In 2014, she was a Fulbright student finalist conducting research on CNT and electroceramic composite electrochemical sensors. In 2020, she completed her PhD studies in Materials Science and Nanoengineering at Rice University where her work was primarily associated with designing and scaling reactors for carbon nanotube production, particularly from methane pyrolysis.
Acknowledgements
​The author gratefully acknowledges colleagues at the Baker Institute, including Rachel Meidl, who inspired this article and an appreciation of a systems-wide understanding which can oftentimes guide technology innovations.

References

  1. “Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2017 Fact Sheet.” 2019. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
  2. Agarwal, Seema. 2020. “Biodegradable Polymers: Present Opportunities and Challenges in Providing a Microplastic-Free Environment.” Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics 221 (6): 2000017. https://doi.org/10.1002/macp.202000017.
  3. Ahamed, Ashiq, Pramodh Vallam, Nikhil Shiva Iyer, Andrei Veksha, Johan Bobacka, and Grzegorz Lisak. 2021. “Life Cycle Assessment of Plastic Grocery Bags and Their Alternatives in Cities with Confined Waste Management Structure: A Singapore Case Study.” Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (January): 123956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123956.
  4. Allard, Sam. 2019. “Republic Services Would Appreciate It If You’d Stop Putting Live Ammo and Dead Animals in the Recycling.” Cleveland Scene, May 23, 2019. https://www.clevescene.com/scene-and-heard/archives/2019/05/23/republic-services-would-appreciate-it-if-youd-stop-putting-live-ammo-and-dead-animals-in-the-recycling.
  5. “An Assessment of Single and Dual Stream Recycling Including Current Program Performance in Large Ontario Municipalities.” 2012. HDR. https://thecif.ca/projects/documents/716-Final_Report-REV.pdf.
  6. “Announcement of Releasing the Catalogues of Imported Wastes Management.” 2017. 39. Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection. www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bgg/201708/t20170817_419811.htm?COLLCC=3069001657&.
  7. Brooks, Amy L., Shunli Wang, and Jenna R. Jambeck. 2018. “The Chinese Import Ban and Its Impact on Global Plastic Waste Trade.” Science Advances 4 (6): eaat0131. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat0131.
  8. Cai, Y.-J., and T.-M. Choi. 2019. “Extended Producer Responsibility: A Systematic Review and Innovative Proposals for Improving Sustainability.” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2019.2914341.
  9. Calma, Justine. 2019. “The ‘Amazon Effect’ Is Flooding a Struggling Recycling System with Cardboard.” The Verge, December 2, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/2/20986298/cyber-monday-black-friday-amazon-effect-recycling-cardboard-shopping.
  10. Chang, Alisa. 2020. “Reuters Reporter On The Rise Of Single-Use Plastic During The Pandemic.” NPR.Org. October 12, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/10/12/923066232/reuters-reporter-on-the-rise-of-single-use-plastic-during-the-pandemic.
  11. “China’s Ban on Trash Imports Shifts Waste Crisis to Southeast Asia.” 2018. Environment. November 16, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/11/china-ban-plastic-trash-imports-shifts-waste-crisis-southeast-asia-malaysia/.
  12. “Complete Life Cycle Assessment of North American Container Glass.” 2010. Environmental Overview. Glass Packaging Institute. https://assets.noviams.com/novi-file-uploads/gpi/pdfs-and-documents/Learn_About_Glass/LCA_-_GPI2010_-_compressed.pdf.
  13. Danahey, Mike. 2018. “Elgin Residents Make Huge Reduction in ‘Contaminated’ Recyclables Dumping.” Chicago Tribune, November 6, 2018. https://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/elgin-courier-news/ct-ecn-elgin-recycling-st-1107-story.html.
  14. Davis, Rebecca. 2019. “Perfect Storm Hits U.S. Recycling Industry.” NPR.Org. August 20, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/08/20/752670386/perfect-storm-hits-u-s-recycling-industry.
  15. Davis, Rebecca, and Christopher Joyce. 2019. “Plastics: What’s Recyclable, What Becomes Trash — And Why.” NPR Visuals. August 21, 2019. https://apps.npr.org/plastics-recycling/.
  16. Diggle, Avalon, and Tony R. Walker. 2020. “Implementation of Harmonized Extended Producer Responsibility Strategies to Incentivize Recovery of Single-Use Plastic Packaging Waste in Canada.” Waste Management 110 (June): 20–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.05.013.
  17. Dillon, John. 2018. “Changes In Global Markets Mean Higher Recycling Costs In Vermont.” VPR, August 2, 2018. https://www.vpr.org/post/changes-global-markets-mean-higher-recycling-costs-vermont.
  18. “Downstream of Single-Stream.” 2002. Resource Recycling. Eureka Recycling. http://www.maroneysinc.com/images/Downstream_of_Single_Stream.pdf.
  19. Dyer, Jessica. 2019. “China’s Restrictions Mean More Material Goes to Landfills.” Alburquerque Journal, March 31, 2019. https://www.abqjournal.com/1298294/chinas-restrictions-mean-more-material-goes-to-landfills.html.
  20. Evancie, Angela, and Howard Weiss-Tisman. 2019. “What Happens To Vermont’s Recycling?” Brave Little State VPR. October 4, 2019. https://www.vpr.org/post/what-happens-vermonts-recycling.
  21. “Executive Summary Report for Recycling Analysis.” 2018. Poll. The Harris Poll. Harris Insights & Analytics LLC. https://www.isri.org/docs/default-source/recycling-analysis-(reports-studies)/2018-harris-poll-exec-summary-final.pdf?sfvrsn=2&sfvrsn=2.
  22. Fenston, Jacob. 2019. “Is Recycling Worth It? Why Many Things You Toss End Up In A Landfill.” WAMU (blog). February 12, 2019. https://wamu.org/story/19/02/12/does-your-recycling-actually-get-recycled-yes-maybe-it-depends/.
  23. Franklin-Wallis, Oliver. 2019. “‘Plastic Recycling Is a Myth’: What Really Happens to Your Rubbish?” The Guardian, August 17, 2019, sec. Environment. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/17/plastic-recycling-myth-what-really-happens-your-rubbish.
  24. Garcia, Jeannette M., and Megan L. Robertson. 2017. “The Future of Plastics Recycling.” Science 358 (6365): 870–72. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0324.
  25. Gayle, Riana. 2018. “What A Load Of Garbage: Waste Managers Report Common Recycling Mistakes.” Utah Public Radio, August 29, 2018. https://www.upr.org/post/what-load-garbage-waste-managers-report-common-recycling-mistake.
  26. Geyer, Roland, Jenna R. Jambeck, and Kara Lavender Law. 2017. “Production, Use, and Fate of All Plastics Ever Made.” Science Advances 3 (7): e1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782.
  27. Gitlitz, Jenny. 2013. “Bottled Up: Beverage Container Recycling Stagnates (2000-2010).” Container Recycling Institute.
  28. “Glass Recycling Facts - Glass Packaging Institute.” n.d. Accessed June 8, 2020. https://www.gpi.org/glass-recycling-facts.
  29. Goodyear, Sarah. n.d. “A Brief History of Household Recycling.” CityLab. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://www.citylab.com.
  30. Great Britain and Environment Agency. 2011. Life Cycle Assessment of Supermarket Carrierbags: A Review of the Bags Available in 2006. Bristol: Environment Agency.
  31. Greene, Alex. 2019. “The Recycling Crisis.” Memphis Flyer, August 22, 2019, sec. Cover Feature. https://www.memphisflyer.com/memphis/the-recycling-crisis/Content?oid=21231227.
  32. Gross, Richard A., and Bhanu Kalra. 2002. “Biodegradable Polymers for the Environment.” Science 297 (5582): 803–7. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.297.5582.803.
  33. Hafner, Katherine. 2019. “The State of Recycling in Virginia: It May Not Be Going Where You Think.” The Virginia-Pilot. November 7, 2019. https://www.pilotonline.com/business/consumer/vp-nw-virginia-recycling-20191107-d7ubgunflbbgfg3lxou4qni2ga-story.html.
  34. Hickle, Garth. 2017. “Extending the Boundaries: An Assessment of the Integration of Extended Producer Responsibility Within Corporate Social Responsibility.” Business Strategy and the Environment 26 (1): 112–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1908.
  35. History.com Editors. n.d. “The First Earth Day.” HISTORY. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-earth-day.
  36. “How Mountains of U.S. Plastic Waste Ended up in Malaysia, Broken down by Workers for $10 a Day.” 2018. Los Angeles Times. December 29, 2018. https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-malaysia-plastic-2018-story.html.
  37. Ignatyev, Igor, Wim Thielemans, and Bob Vanderbeke. 2014. “Recycling of Polymers: A Review.” ChemSusChem 7 (May). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201300898.
  38. Jacoby, Mitch. 2019. “Why Glass Recycling in the US Is Broken.” Chemical & Engineering News 97 (6). https://cen.acs.org/materials/inorganic-chemistry/glass-recycling-US-broken/97/i6.
  39. Jambeck, Jenna R., Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, Miriam Perryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, and Kara Lavender Law. 2015. “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” Science 347 (6223): 768–71. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352.
  40. Jaquiss, Nigel. 2018. “Recycling Is Religion in Portland. But It’s in Crisis Because You’re Doing It Wrong.” Willamette Weekly, June 6, 2018. https://www.wweek.com/news/2018/06/06/recycling-is-religion-in-portland-but-its-in-crisis-because-we-keep-throwing-garbage-in-our-blue-bins/.
  41. “Kerbside Recycling: Indicative Costs and Performance.” 2008. WRAP. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Kerbside%20collection%20report%20160608.pdf#page=26.
  42. Kimmel, Robert M. 2014. “Life Cycle Assessment of Grocery Bags in Common Use in the United States.” Environmental Studies 6: 194.
  43. Koerth, Maggie. 2019. “The Era Of Easy Recycling May Be Coming To An End.” FiveThirtyEight (blog). January 10, 2019. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-era-of-easy-recycling-may-be-coming-to-an-end/.
  44. Krieger, Lisa M. 2019. “Recycling Crisis: China Doesn’t Want Our Waste. Now What?” Bay Area News Group, April 2, 2019. https://www.mercurynews.com/2019/04/02/recycling-crisis-china-rejects-most-of-our-junk-now-what/.
  45. Kuffner, Alex. 2017. “R.I.’s Dirtiest River: The Recycling Stream.” Providence Journal, November 17, 2017. https://www.providencejournal.com/news/20171117/ris-dirtiest-river-recycling-stream.
  46. Lakhan, Calvin. 2015. “A Comparison of Single and Multi-Stream Recycling Systems in Ontario, Canada.” Resources 4 (2): 384–97. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4020384.
  47. Laskow, Sarah. 2014. “Single-Stream Recycling Is Easier for Consumers, but Is It Better?” The Atlantic. September 18, 2014. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/09/single-stream-recycling-is-easier-for-consumers-but-is-it-better/380368/.
  48. Laville, Sandra. 2018. “UK Plastics Recycling Industry under Investigation for Fraud and Corruption.” The Guardian, October 19, 2018, sec. Environment. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/18/uk-recycling-industry-under-investigation-for-and-corruption.
  49. Margolis, Jason. 2018. “Mountains of US Recycling Pile up as China Restricts Imports.” The World from PRX (blog). January 1, 2018. https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-01-01/mountains-us-recycling-pile-china-restricts-imports.
  50. Marshall, Cody, Karen Bandhauer, Liz Bedard, Anne Blindt, Dylan de Thomas, Rachel Eckert, Justin Gast, et al. 2017. “The 2016 State of Curbside Report.” The Recycling Partnership.
  51. “Max-AI® In Action.” n.d. Max-AI® (blog). Accessed October 26, 2020. https://www.max-ai.com/video-max-ai-autonomous-qc/.
  52. McFadden, Robert D. 1987. “Garbage Barge Returns in Search of a Dump.” The New York Times, May 18, 1987, sec. New York. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/18/nyregion/garbage-barge-returns-in-search-of-a-dump.html.
  53. Meidl, Rachel A. 2018. “Plastic Waste Management: Are We on the Right Path to Sustainability?” Issue Brief. Rice University, Houston, TX: Baker Institute for Public Policy.
  54. Morawski, Clarissa. 2009. “Understanding Economic and Environmental Impacts of Single Stream Collection Systems.” Container Recycling Institute. 
  55. Morawski, Clarissa. 2010. “Single Stream Uncovered.” Resource Recycling, February, 5.
  56. Olivetti, Elsa, Rebecca Niles, and Jiyoun Chang. 2018. “MIT-AF&PA Project – China White Paper.” American Forest and Paper Association.
  57. Orr, Steve. 2018. “Curbside Recycling Programs Are Now Such Money-Losers That It’s Going to Cost Us More.” Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, June 29, 2018. https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/2018/06/29/blue-bin-curbside-recycling-losing-money-new-york-plastics-paper-glass-china-bans-imports/715017002/.
  58. “Population, Total - United States | Data.” n.d. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=US.
  59. Pyzyk, Katie. 2018. “Lake Worth, Florida Reverting to Dual-Stream Collection next Month.” Waste Dive. September 4, 2018. https://www.wastedive.com/news/lake-worth-florida-dual-stream-collection/531504/.
  60. Rahimi, AliReza, and Jeannette M. García. 2017. “Chemical Recycling of Waste Plastics for New Materials Production.” Nature Reviews Chemistry 1 (6): 1–11. 
  61. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-017-0046.
  62. Rico, Corinne, and Cooper Martin. 2018. “Rethinking Recycling. How Cities Can Adapt to Evolving Markets.” National League of Cities. https://www.nlc.org/sites/default/files/2018-09/CSAR_Recycling-MAG.pdf.
  63. Roper, Eric. 2018. “Minnesota Recyclers Scrambling in Wake of Chinese Restrictions.” Star Tribune, July 16, 2018. https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-recyclers-scrambling-in-wake-of-chinese-restrictions/488198641/.
  64. Rosengren, Cole. 2018a. “Washington State Recycling Market Issues Finally Come into Focus.” Waste Dive. April 3, 2018. https://www.wastedive.com/news/washington-state-recycling-market-issues-finally-come-into-focus/520413/.
  65. Rosengren, Cole. 2018b. “Why Nebraska’s Biggest MRF Is Done with Commercial Single-Stream.” Waste Dive. June 15, 2018. https://www.wastedive.com/news/nebraska-biggest-mrf-done-with-commercial-single-stream/525855/.
  66. Rosengren, Cole, Matt Witynski, Rina Li, E. A. Crunden, Cody Boteler, and Katie Pyzyk. 2019. “How Recycling Has Changed in All 50 States.” Waste Dive. November 15, 2019. https://www.wastedive.com/news/what-chinese-import-policies-mean-for-all-50-states/510751/.
  67. Seabrook, John. 2008. “American Scrap.” The New Yorker. January 7, 2008. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/01/14/american-scrap.
  68. Shao, Elena. 2019. “San Francisco Is Surviving the Global Recycling Crisis. But It’s Not Easy.” San Francisco Chronicle, September 9, 2019, sec. Business. https://www.sfchronicle.com/business/article/San-Francisco-is-surviving-the-global-recycling-14423494.php.
  69. Sibley, Scott F. 2011. “Overview of Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the United States.” Circular 1196-AA. Circular. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1196-AA/.
  70. Singerling, Sheryl A., and Elizabeth S. Sangine. 2017. “Recycling-Metals.” U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. USGS. https://prd-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/atoms/files/myb1-2017-recyc.pdf.
  71. “Single Stream Recycling- Total Cost Analysis.” 2004. American Forest and Paper Association. http://www.container-recycling.org/assets/pdfs/AFPA-PaperQualitySingleStream-3-04.pdf.
  72. “Smart Plastics Guide.” n.d. Sea Studios Foundation. https://www-tc.pbs.org/strangedays/pdf/StrangeDaysSmartPlasticsGuide.pdf.
  73. Solman, Paul. 2018. “Why Your Recyclables Might Have No Place to Go.” PBS NewsHour. October 4, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/why-your-recyclables-might-have-no-place-to-go.
  74. “State Plastic Bag Legislation.” 2021. February 8, 2021. https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/plastic-bag-legislation.aspx.
  75. Staub, Colin. 2018. “Dual-Stream Collection Regains Appeal in Some Areas.” Resource Recycling News (blog). July 17, 2018. https://resource-recycling.com/recycling/2018/07/17/dual-stream-collection-regains-appeal-in-some-areas/.
  76. Stein, R. S. 1992. “Polymer Recycling: Opportunities and Limitations.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89 (3): 835–38. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.3.835.
  77. Sullivan, Laura. 2020. “How Big Oil Misled The Public Into Believing Plastic Would Be Recycled.” NPR.Org. September 11, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycled.
  78. Sullivan, Laura, and Sarah Gonzalez. 2020. “Waste Land : Planet Money.” NPR.Org. September 11, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/912150085/waste-land.
  79. Taylor, Michael, and The Smart Money. 2019. “Commentary: Recycling Market Woes Hit Texas Cities’ Bottom Line.” Beaumont Enterprise. October 15, 2019. https://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Commentary-Recycling-market-woes-hit-Texas-14537351.php.
  80. “The New Plastics Economy- Rethinking the Future of Plastics.” 2016. World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/EllenMacArthurFoundation_TheNewPlasticsEconomy_15-3-16.pdf.
  81. Thomas, Ken. 2019. “Recycling a Messy Business: Markets Threaten Worth of Earth-Friendly Efforts.” Daily Citizen, September 27, 2019. https://www.wiscnews.com/news/local/in-depth-recycling-a-messy-business-markets-threaten-worth-of-earth-friendly-efforts/article_ee9a415a-a443-577b-b48d-ed9e752f0287.html.
  82. Tullo, Alexander H. 2016. “The Cost of Plastic Packaging.” Chemical & Engineering News 94 (41): 32–37.
  83. US EPA, OLEM. 2016. “Energy Recovery from the Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW).” Overviews and Factsheets. US EPA. March 24, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/smm/energy-recovery-combustion-municipal-solid-waste-msw.
  84. US EPA, OLEM. 2017a. “Plastics: Material-Specific Data.” Collections and Lists. September 12, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/plastics-material-specific-data.
  85. US EPA, OLEM. 2017b. “National Overview: Facts and Figures on Materials, Wastes and Recycling.” Overviews and Factsheets. US EPA. October 2, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials.
  86. “US Plastic Waste Is Causing Environmental Problems at Home and Abroad.” 2018. Unearthed. October 5, 2018. https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2018/10/05/plastic-waste-china-ban-united-states-america/.
  87. “We Found UK Plastic Waste in Illegal Dump Sites in Malaysia.” 2018. Unearthed. October 21, 2018. https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2018/10/21/uk-household-plastics-found-in-illegal-dumps-in-malaysia/.
  88. “World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations.” n.d. Accessed January 16, 2022. https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/.
  89. Yergin, Daniel. 2009. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power. New York, NY: Free Press.
  90. Zarka, Liz. 2019. “Recycling’s Sword of Damocles.” East Bay Express. May 21, 2019. https://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/recyclings-sword-of-damocles/Content?oid=26354842
DISCLAIMER: The findings and conclusions published herein are solely attributed to the author and not necessarily endorsed or adopted by the Journal of Science Policy and Governance. Articles are distributed in compliance with copyright and trademark agreements.

ISSN 2372-2193
© 2022 Journal of Science Policy & Governance, Inc. All rights reserved. The opinions, findings and conclusions from JSPG publications and events do not necessarily reflect the views of the journal.